Indus Valley Civilization is No. 1 And The Most civilised Civilization

Agriculture

 It was the main occupation in rural areas.

 In Ancient times, more fertile, more natural vegetation attracted more rainfall.

 Currently rainless and not so fertile, but the production was good enough for survival based on the temporary arrangements made.For example, cultivation of crops near the riverine bed region during non-rainfall months of the year.

 Annual inundation in Indus water. It had more alluvial silt than the Nile river in Egypt.

Technique of Agriculture:

 Sowing and Reaping: In November sow seeds of wheat and Barley. Reaping during the month of April.

 No clear evidence of the tools.

 Furrows or plough-marks at Kalibangan, Terracotta models at Banawali and Bahawalpur (probably wooden plough) were discovered

 Stone sickles used for harvesting.

Types of Crops grown:

 Wheat, barley [2 qualities]

 Rai, Peas, sesamum, mustard, Jujube, etc

 Rice (summer crop) evidence at Lothal and Rangpur (in the form of husks embedded in pottery)

 Watermelon, dates, millets, grapes, henna (mehndi), garlic, mustard

 Earliest to produce Cotton (Since cotton was first produced in this area, the Greeks called it Sindon).

Cotton:

 Grown at Mehrgarh in 5000 BC

 Cloth were found attached to silver vase at Mohenjo Daro

 Spindle whorls of terracotta and faience

Irrigation:

 Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dams (Afghanistan and Balochistan).

 However, the channel or canal irrigation system was absent in general.

Exception: Only Dholavira, which had a canal system.

Livestock

 They domesticated Oxen, Buffalo, Goats, Sheep, Pigs, and Humped bull.

 There were signs of the feet of Dogs and Cats.

 Camels -beasts of burden.

 Society was definitely not horse-centered.

 No bones and no representation

 Elephants and Rhinoceros were known to Harappans.

 In Gujarat, domesticated Elephants

 The contemporary Mesopotamian cities domesticated all the animals as Harappan except Elephants.

 Relished non-vegetarian food: exploited riverine and marine resources.

 Fish eating, molluscs: protein-rich food in the coastal sites of Gujarat.

 Consumed milk and curd.

Metal and Related crafts

 Aware of almost all the metals except iron.

 Bronze was produced from copper and tin. Dancing girl made of bronze was discovered.

Copper tools and weapons:

 A number of copper tools and weapons have also been discovered.

 The common tools included axe, saws, chisels, knives, spearheads and arrowheads.

 The Harappan people produced weapons made of various metals.However, it is important to note that the weapons produced by the Harappans were mostly defensive in nature as there is no evidence of weapons like swords, etc.

 Stone tools were also commonly used.

Gold and silver object

 The gold objects include beads, armlets, needles and other ornaments/jewellery.

 Use of silver was more common than gold.

 A large number of silver ornaments, dishes, etc. have been discovered.

 Harappans may have obtained Gold and Silver from Afghanistan.

 Harappans imported other precious metal from South India.

 There is also ample evidence of the use of the bronze though in limited manner.

 Tin and copper were not easily available.

 Copper was obtained from Khetri mines, Rajasthan.

 Tin was obtained from Afghanistan.

Product [Industries and Crafts]

 Bronze

 Copper tools & weapons

 Gold & objects/Jewellery

 Beads & Ornaments

 Pottery

 Cotton and wool clothes

 Boat

 Carts

 Bangles

Bead Making

 Beads were made of precious and semi-precious stones such as agate and Carnelian shell, jasper, crystal, steatite.

 Gold and silver beads have also been found.

 Cut shaped polished bored.

 Ivory carving and inlaying used in beads, bracelets and other decorations were also in practice.

 The evidence of beadmakers’ shops has been found at Chanhudaro and Lothal.

Terracotta figurines of males and females

The female figurines were more in comparison to that of males

 Worship of mother goddess.

 Variety of models of birds, monkeys, dogs, sheep, cattle, humped and humpless bulls + toy carts are found.

 Various models of terracotta carts were discovered.

Black on Red Pottery

 Pottery making was also an important industry in the Harappan period.

 Harappans were excellent potters, they developed specialization in pottery making.

 Chiefly wheels were made and were treated with a red coating and had decorations in black.

 These are found in various sizes and shapes.

 The painted designs consist of horizontal lines of varied thickness:

 Leaf patterns, palms and pipal trees.

 Birds, fishes and animals are also depicted on pottery.

 Various types of utensils, toys, seals, figurines have been excavated from different sites.

 Example: Painted earthen jars, Beads and Ornaments, Toy Animal with moveable head

Clothes

 The recovery of woven cotton from Mohenjo Daro and textile impressions found on several objects shows the prevalence of spinning and weaving industries.

 Clothes of both wool and cotton were woven.

Boat-Making:

 Harappans also practiced boat-making. They carried navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea.

Carts with Solid Wheels

 They also made carts with solid wheels.

 They used some kind of modern Ekka but not a spoked wheel.

Note:The concept of making wheels might have come from pottery.

Weights and Measures

 It had standardization and accuracy in the context of weights and measures.

 They followed a binary system in the lower denominations: 1,2,8,16,32 to 64, and then in decimal multiples of 160 like 160,320,640,1600,3200 and so on.

 Weights were made of chert, limestone and steatite and were generally cubical in shape.

Scales

 Measures of length were based on the foot (37.6 cm) and the cubit (51.8 to 53.3 cm).

 A shell scale has been found at Mohenjo Daro, a shell object probably used to measure the angles has been found at Saurashtra.

 An ivory scale has been discovered at Lothal.

Seals and Other Enablers

 Money:No metallic money in circulation.There was a prevalence of the Barter system.

 Transport: Primarily bullock carts and Boats.

 Ports:

 A dockyard has been excavated in Lothal.

 Sea ports have been found at Rangpur, Somnath and Balakot.

Seals

 Scripts Seals:

❖ Most of the urban Harappan sites have reported seals/ distinctive traits of the mature phase.

❖ Thousands of seals have been discovered.

❖ Materials: Steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta. Some are found in gold and ivory.

❖ Depiction: Beautiful figures of animals and also monsters, Unicorns, bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, etc. The realistic rendering of these animals in various forms is remarkable. Sometimes trees or human figures were also depicted.

❖ Shape:

➢ Generally, they are square/rectangular. Some are circular and few are cylindrical.

➢ The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2 X 2 square inches, usually made from the soft river stone, steatite.

❖ Purpose: Mainly commercial. Also used as amulets(carried on the persons of their owners, perhaps as modern-day identity cards).

❖ Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered.

Pashupati Seal

❖ The most remarkable seal is the one depicted with a figure in the center and animals around.

❖ It was discovered at Mohenjo Daro.

❖ This seal is generally identified as the Pashupati Seal by some scholars whereas some identify it as the female deity.

❖ This seal depicts a figure of a Yogi seated cross-legged.

❖ Most of these seals have a knob at the back through which runs a hole and it is believed that they were used by different guilds of merchants and traders for stamping purposes.

❖ When not in use, they could be worn round the neck or the arm like an amulet.

❖ Presence of these seals, especially the cylindrical ones often with Harappan motifs suggest a cultural interaction with Mesopotamian and Persian world whereas the circular ones are similar to that of the Gulf area.

❖ Amongst the variety of subjects depicted on the seals, it was the so-called ‘Unicorn’ (one horned mythical animal) that outnumbered the rest.

❖ Other animals incorporated are:

➢ Short horned bull (bison)

➢ Brahmani bull with its characteristic’s dewlap and hump.

➢ Buffalo

➢ Rhinoceros

➢ Tiger

➢ Elephant

➢ Crocodile

➢ Antelope

➢ Goat

➢ Hare

❖ Then there were composite animals and even human and animal combinations.

❖ Some seals contain more complex monographic scenes representing mythological or religious depiction.

❖ It is noteworthy that while the seals depict a number of animals there is no representation of horses on these. It has led many scholars to argue that horse was not known to the Harappan people though there are others who do not accept this argument.

❖ Thus now, Harappan seals are treated more in the nature of token of power and prestige rather than merebadges bearing their owner’s name.

❖ If the function of these seals, in which they were supposed to perform, was simply restricted to vouching for merchants right on the goods they were stamped on a lump of clay of a sealed container, there is no reason why so much artistic skill went into their manufacture.

Trade Of INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

❖ Indus valley people had both short and long-distance trade, and also foreign trade.

❖ International Trade with: Mesopotamia, Gulf countries, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Iran.

❖ The thriving agricultural economy supported a flourishing trade both within the northern and western areas of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture and those of the Persian and Gulf and Mesopotamia.

❖ The products of Indus have been found in Mesopotamia.

❖ They used boats and bullock-carts for transportation.

❖ Developed a uniform system of weights and measures.

❖ Seals and sealings were used in trade, as marks of ownership meant to guarantee the Quality of the product.

❖ There were bead-making factories at Chanhudaro and Lothal. The products of these factories were items of export.

❖ Writing or scripts although not deciphered till date, but it also facilitated trades.

❖ The findings of Indus seals suggest that merchants from Indus actually resided in Mesopotamia.

❖ Shortughai was a Harappan trading post in Afghanistan.

❖ The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC refer to trade relations with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region.

❖ Exported materials: Wheat, Barley, Pottery, Oilseeds, Peas, Cotton, Beads, Terracotta figures, Ivory products, etc.

Harappan Trade with Mesopotamia:

❖ Engaged in trade with Mesopotamia largely through Oman and Bahrain in the Persian Gulf.

❖ Presence of Harappan artifacts such as beads, seals, dice, etc. in these regions.

❖ Cities like Susa, Ur, etc. yielded about two dozen Harappan seals and potteries, etched carnelian beads and dices.

❖ Artifacts from those regions are rarely found at the Harappan sites. A seal of West Asian or Persian origin has been discovered at Lothal.

❖ Inscriptional evidence from Mesopotamia refers to trade with Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha.

➢ Meluhha with Harappan region.

➢ Magan with Makran coast.

➢ Dilmun with Bahrain.

❖ Mesopotamian imports: Copper, carnelian, ivory, shell, lapis lazuli, pearls and ebony from Meluhha.

❖ Mesopotamian exports to Harappans: Garments, wool, perfumes, leather products and silver.

❖ Commercial relations with Afghanistan and Iran.

❖ Trading colony in Northern Afghanistan which facilitated trade with Central Asia (Shortughai) Major Imported Materials by the Harappans

Material Source

Gold

❖ Afghanistan

❖ Persia

❖ Karnataka(Kolar)

Silver

❖ Jwar mines of Rajasthan

❖ Iran Copper

❖ Balochistan, Oman and Khetri (Rajasthan)

Tin

❖ Afghanistan

❖ Central Asia

❖ Carnelian beads

❖ Gujarat and Sindh

❖ Agates

❖ Western India

Lead

❖ Rajasthan

❖ South India

❖ Afghanistan

❖ Iran

Coins

❖ Copper seals from Lothal and Desalpur

❖ Jade and Turquoise

❖ Pamir, Khorasan (Central Asia)

❖ Iran

Lapis-lazuli

❖ Kashmir and Shortughai (Afghanistan)

Steatite

❖ Tapi Chahya(Iran),South Rajasthan

❖ Bitumen

❖ Balochistan,Mesopotamia

Political System

❖ There are three major theories:

➢ Single state: similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material.

➢ No single ruler but several: Mohenjo-Daro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth.

➢ No rulers, and everybody enjoyed equal status.

❖ It is not clear what type of political system existed in Harappa.

❖ But we can see the cultural homogenisation which indicates probably there was a Centralised Authority, for instance there might be an oligarchy type political set up.

❖ Not ruled by priests as the cities in lower Mesopotamia, in contrast to Egypt and Mesopotamia, don’t have evidence of temples.

❖ People of Indus Valley Civilizations were more concerned with commerce than with conquests.

❖ There was no significant presence of weapons at any site.

❖ So, from the above-mentioned information we can conclude that Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants (Oligarchy)

Existence of State

State Existed State did Not Exist

❖ Communication system

❖ Standardisation in artefacts

❖ Site specialisation

❖ Mobilisation of labour for public works

❖ Establishment of trading outpost at Shortughai

❖ Cultural uniformity does not mean political unification.

❖ Elements of warfare/conflicts do not dominate.

➢ Exception: Fortification especially at Dholavira.

❖ Common script

❖ Cultural homogeneity

❖ Social differentiation

❖ Some buildings of citadel complex may have admin functions

❖ Absence of evidence of priest king, slaves,standing army or court officials.

❖ Equality with respect to access to wealth.

❖ Absence of marked economic difference as compared to Mesopotamia or Egypt.

❖ NOTE: They showed greater acceptance towards the possibility of decentralisation.

Sculptures

❖ Very few sculptures are known for their high standard of craftsmanship.

❖ In comparison with Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, IVC reported a very limited number of stone and bronze sculptures depicting basically human and animal forms.

❖ The major specimens are reported from Mohenjo-Daro and few from Harappa, Chanhudaro, Dholavira and Daimabad.

❖ Of these, except the statue of ‘Dancing Girl’ from Mohenjo-Daro and Daimabad, hoards representing various animals were casted in bronze rest were carved in stone, dominated by male figures.

Major Findings with respect to Sculptures

❖ Priest King:- Stone bust of male figure found at Mohenjo Daro.

❖ 2 fine stone torsos of male figures at Harappa.

❖ A seated stone ibex at mohenjo Daro.

❖ Stone lizard at Dholavira.

❖ Broken seated male figure at Dholavira.

❖ 2 bronze female figurines were found at Mohenjodaro (1 among these two is dancing girl)

Priest-King:

❖ Found at Mohen-jo-Daro.

❖ It was a steatite sculpture.

❖ He may be a person of very high rank.

❖ In the sculpture he has elaborate clothing and ornaments.

❖ His body below the chest is missing.

❖ Dimensions: Height of 17.5 cm and width of 11 cm.

❖ He has well-combed hair.

❖ The hair parted in the middle and dropped behind the neck.

❖ Nude figure of this youth with well-built yet supple and sensuous body.

❖ It had holes for the attachment of the heads and arms, but none were apparent for the legs.

Dancing Girl:

❖ A bronze statue of nude Dancing Girl found in Mohen-jo-Daro. (It was named by John Marshall)

❖ It was made with a lost wax method/Cire-Perdue.

❖ The statue of about 11 cm. in height

Lost-wax Technique

❖ The lost-wax process, also known as cire-perdue, is a metal casting technique in which molten metal is poured into a mould that was made using a wax model.

❖ The wax model is melted and drained away after the mould has been created.

❖ Molten metal is poured into a hollow core, which is then solidified to produce the casting.

Artistic Style

❖ The stylistic tradition was not homogeneous and uniform.

❖ There was a difference in composition, form and technique between the‘Priest- King’ and ‘Dancing girl‘ found in Mohen-jo-Daro.

➢ The quantity or quality of the Harappan sculptural remains cannot be compared with the repertoire of either Mesopotamia or Egypt.

➢ Neither we find a variety of expression nor the range of exploitation of media which both these cultures witnessed.

❖ However, an assortment of Harappan sculptures reflects on their own developed art concept.

❖ It was surprising to not have sculptural remains of animals but represented in the seals, terracotta and pottery drawings.

❖ Few animals found depicted in copper or bronze, gold or silver and stoneor faience are in the form of miniature figurines mostly as ornaments, forming a part of necklace representing sheep, rabbit, monkey, buffalo, squirrel, bull etc., nevertheless, these representations cannot be treated as sculptures. ❖ Hoard from Daimabad which was discovered accidentally consists of four animal sculptures.

❖ In Late Harappan period we found:

➢ A pair of oxen, an elephant, a rhinoceros and a buffalo.

➢ Solid casts weigh over 60 kg.

➢ Of these, the chariot and bulls are remarkable.

Society

❖ Society appeared to have been matriarchal in nature.

❖ The prevalence of the mother goddess – terracotta female figurines in Punjab and Sind Region.

❖ The existence of diverse professions – priests, warriors, peasants, traders and artisans (masons, weavers, gold-smith, potters, etc.)

➢ Harappa and Lothal had different types of buildings as residence by different classes.

➢ The presence of a class of workmen is proved by workmen quarters near the granary at Harappa.

❖ Workshops and houses meant for coppersmiths and bead-makers were found at Lothal.

❖ Larger houses belonged to the rich class whereas those living in the barracks like workmen quarters were from the class of labourers.

Fashion

❖ They used to wear both cotton and woolen clothes indicating their consciousness of fashion.

❖ Men and women wore two separate pieces of attire similar to the dhoti and shawl.

➢ Shawl covered the left shoulder passing below the right shoulder.

➢ Skirt like a dress to cover the lower portion.

❖ Different hairstyles were in vogue – both sexes

❖ Wearing of a beard was evident among the males.

❖ Cinnabar is probably used for cosmetic purposes.

❖ Apart from these face-paint, lipstick and collyrium (eyeliner) have also been found.

❖ They were fond of Jewellery and ornaments (beads etc.)

❖ Ornaments like Necklaces, armlets, earrings, beads, bangles, etc., used by both the sexes.

❖ Rich people used gold, silver and semi-precious stones.

❖ Poor used wear ornaments made of terracotta.

❖ Export and Import product of Clothing: Discovery of a large number of spindles and spindle whorls and spinning of cotton was very common, hence this indicates they probably do internal and external trade with these products as well.

❖ Both the rich and the poor practiced spinning whorls made by expensive faience as also of the cheap pottery and shell.

❖ A recent study conducted by the University of Cambridge and Banaras Hindu University has found evidence of animal products, including cattle and buffalo meat, in ceramic vessels dating back approximately 4,600 years at seven Indus Valley Civilisation sites in present-day Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

❖ The study analyzed lipid residue in pottery to determine the presence of these animal products.

❖ The research suggests that beef consumption was prevalent among the Indus populations, with a cultural preference for beef supplemented by the consumption of cattle and buffalo meat.

❖ The study also revealed a dominance of animal products in the vessels, including non-ruminant animal meat, ruminant animal meat, and dairy products.

❖ This investigation into lipid residues in pottery from multiple sites provides valuable insights into the dietary practices of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

❖ While the study found limited evidence of dairy products, regional differences may exist, as a separate study in Gujarat revealed evidence of dairy product consumption.

Religious Belief

❖ Our understanding is majorly based on the Harappan seals and terracotta figurines.

❖ Major interpretation by John Marshall in 1931.

❖ Harappan religion is normally termed as animism i.e., worship of trees, stones, etc.,

❖ Terracotta figurines indicate they probably used to worship the mother goddess.

➢ Female adorned with a wide griddle, loin cloth and necklaces.

➢ Wear a fan-shaped head dress.

❖ In various cases a female is shown with an infant.

❖ One such figurine that shows a plant growing out of the uterus of a woman, probably it symbolises the goddess of earth (prototype of Shakambhari) and it was connected with the origin and growth of plants.

➢ Earth: fertility goddess.

➢ Worshipped her in the same manner as Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess.

❖ The worshipping of linga (phallus) and yoni (female sex organ) by the Harappans have also been proposed but there is no ample evidence to support these proposals. Even Rigveda speaks of the non-aryan people who were phallus worshippers.

❖ Though recently a terracotta piece is found in Kalibangan which closely resembles a lingam with yoni Pitha.

❖ Male Deity: Evident by the seal depicting a deity with a buffalo- horned headdress, sitting in a yogic posture and surrounded by animals- an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros and a buffalo. Two deer are considered sacred. This deity is identified with God Pashupati (Lord of beasts) or ‘Proto-Shiva’‘.

❖ Tree Worship: In other instances, a deity is shown with horns and flowing hair standing nude between the branches of a Pipal tree and a worshipper is kneeling in front. It represents tree worship.

❖ Procession Seal: Horned figures in a pipal tree with one-horned attendants and bull figures. 2000-1900 BCE.

❖ Animal Worship: It also appears to be popular among the Harappans. Many of them have been represented on the seals. The most important one is the One-horned animal unicorn which may be a Rhinoceros.

❖ Fire worship: Fire worship was prevalent in Kalibangan and Lothal.

➢ At Kalibangan, a series of raised brick platforms with pits containing ash and animal bones.

❖ Different areas followed different religious practices.

❖ Gods were not placed in Temples as in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.

❖ Great Bath: Elite ritual activity involving ceremonial bathing can be found in the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro.

❖ Kalibangan Cylindrical Seal: A woman flanked by 2 men holding her with one hand and raised sword over her head may indicate Human sacrifice.

Burial Practices

❖ Not yielded any monument such as the Pyramids of Egypt or the Royal cemetery at Ur in Mesopotamia. Dead bodies were generally resting in a north-south direction.

❖ Buried with a varying number of earthen pots.

❖ In some graves, grave goods found such as bangles, beads, copper mirrors indicate they believed in life after death. But grave goods were not very lavish.

❖ Dead bodies are generally buried in a north-south manner with jewellery and other items as grave goods. E.g., Inamgaon (Maharashtra).

❖ These different practices in different regions of Harappan civilization may reflect diversity in religious beliefs.

Findings of Burials

❖ Harappa: A coffin burial with a shroud (kafan) made of reeds has been found.

❖ At Lothal, multiple or double burials with male and female bodies together were discovered.

❖ Kalibangan has yielded evidence of a symbolic burial along i.e., a burial which contains grave goods but no bones or skeleton.

❖ At Mohenjo Daro and Harappa we also found Fractional burials where bodies exposed to elements and bones were gathered and buried.

❖ Urn burials found at Kalibangan and other IVC sites are indicative of post-cremation burials.

Script

❖ Pictographic and logosyllabic (each symbol stood for a word/syllable).

❖ Probably ideograms i.e., a graphic symbol or a character to convey the idea directly.

❖ Writing was boustrophedon (right to left and left to right in alternate lines).

❖ Script has not been deciphered so far.

❖ The evidence of a common script points to great cultural integration.

❖ Virtual disappearance by c.1700 BCE hints at the lack of sufficient downward percolation of writing.

❖ The Harappans were literate people. Harappan seals are engraved with various signs or characters.

❖ Recent studies revealed that the Harappan script consists of about 400 signs.

❖ The language is still unknown. But little research suggests that their language might be “Brahui“, a dialect used by Baluchi people in Pakistan today.

❖ Unlike Egyptians and Mesopotamians, Harappans did not write long inscriptions.Their most inscriptions were recorded on seals and contained only a few words.

Script in Egypt

❖ An inscribed stone with writing in three different languages and scripts was discovered near Rosetta, an Egyptian town on the north shore

❖ Kings’ and queens’ names were encased in a little frame known as a cartouche.

Script in Mesopotamia

❖ Cuneiform is a logo-syllabic script that was used to write several languages of the Ancient Near East.

❖ It is named for the characteristic wedge-shaped impressions (Latin: cuneus) which form its signs.

❖ Cuneiform was originally developed to write the Sumerian language of southern Mesopotamia.

●Cuneiform is the earliest writing system.

Distinguishing Features of Harappan and Mesopotamian Civilization

Harappan Civilization

❖ Planned towns – chess board system.

❖ Excellent drainage system.

❖ Rectangular houses, brick-lined bathrooms, wells, stairways.

❖ Own unique pottery, seals.

❖ No resemblance to Egyptian/Mesopotamian.

❖ Script mostly on seals.

❖ No signs of existence after 1900 BCE.

❖ Spread over a wider area.

Egypt / Mesopotamian Civilization

❖ Haphazard growth.

❖ No excellent drainage system was found.

❖ No rectangular houses, brick-lined bathrooms, wells,stairways were found.

❖ No Own unique pottery, seals.

❖ Mesopotamia – cuneiform script
❖ Egyptian script – hieroglyphics
❖ Both scripts have been deciphered.

❖ Mesopotamians pressed letters onto moist clay tablets while Egyptians wrote on papyrus sheets made of reeds.

❖ Continued to exist even after 1900 BCE.

❖ Less area as compared to Harappa.

Technology

❖ New techniques in metallurgy and copper, bronze, lead, and tin came to existence.

❖ A touchstone found in Banawali.

❖ No use of iron.

❖ Engineering skill: Especially in building docks. great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. weights and measures later used in Kautilya’s Arthashastra (4th century BCE) are similar.

Causes of Decline of Indus Valley Civilization:

❖ Flood Theory:

➢ Tectonic shift at Sewan near Mohenjo Daro.

➢ Alternate: Indus changed its course and started moving some 30 miles away from Mohenjo Daro.

➢ Harappan sites in Ghaggar Hakra valley affected by gradual desiccation. Sedimentation made the river shallow and led to the disappearance of sites close to Ghaggar Hakra.

➢ River Capture: Either Yamuna or Satluj which used to flow via Ghaggar was captured.

➢ Sudden Rise of Arabian Sea Coastline: Floods and rise in soil salinity disrupted coastal commerce and trade.

❖ Aridity and Famine theory:➢ Increased aridity and drying up of the river Ghaggar-Hakra on account of the changes in river courses.

➢ Increase in arid conditions by around 2000 BCE affected agricultural production.

❖ Rainfall: Rainfall in IVC increased around 3000 BCE and then decreased around 2000 BCE. This may haveadversely affected agriculture and stock bearing.

❖ Fertility: Increasing salinity of the soil caused by the expansion of neighboring desert led to a decrease in soil fertility.

❖ Over-exploitation: Overgrazing, over cultivation, excessive cutting of trees for fuel or farming.

❖ Decline in Lapis Lazuli trade with Mesopotamia.

❖ Foreign Invasion:

❖ Aryan Invasion Theory (Ramprasad Chanda 1926/elaborated by Mortimer Wheeler):

➢ IVC was destroyed by the Aryans who came to India from north-west around 1500 BC. [This theory is completely negated today].➢ Evidence in support of the theory (provided by Ramprasad Chandra): ▪ Mention of Indra, considered as the destroyer of Forts.▪ Mention of Hariyupriya (signified Harappa) in Rigveda.